Integrated Human Practices
Interviews
Milestone One: Environmental Goals
Meeting with government officials, environmental organizations, and university professors in various fields to ask about Rochester energy/environmental goals and what we can do to help
Scott Thompson
Energy Smart Rochester
We spoke with Scott Thompson, an Environmental Sustainability Analyst at Energy Smart Rochester. Our goal was to understand how Rochester addresses climate change and supports the community, with a primary focus of exploring how our project could benefit the Rochester community and align with the city’s sustainability efforts.
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Purpose
We aimed to gain insight into how a carbon-negative energy source could benefit the Rochester community, particularly in terms of health and financial impact.
Stakeholder Response
When discussing his experience as a Rochester city planner, he mentioned that if our project successfully reduces CO2 levels in the atmosphere, it could significantly improve the health and quality of life for Rochester residents. He also emphasized that diversifying the community’s energy sources would make Rochester more resilient to climate change. He suggested that, in order to win Rochester residents support, we clearly demonstrate how the project will specifically improve their lives, such as providing concrete numbers on how quickly the investment would pay for itself. When asked about the most pressing challenges facing the Rochester community, he identified cost as a major concern, noting that many residents cannot afford the upfront expense of installing green energy alternatives like solar panels. To address this, he advised that our solution must be “affordable, low-maintenance, and accessible to people in all income brackets.” To avoid worries about the cyanobacteria technology used, he stressed the importance of thoroughly explaining the safety aspects of our project. Mr. Thompson expressed confidence that our project has the potential to help wean the community off fossil fuels.
Action Plan
If we implement our project, we will clearly communicate the benefits of carbon-negative energy and the reduction of CO2 emissions to the public. We will address cost concerns by exploring funding options and offering financial assistance to reduce upfront costs for lower-income residents. Additionally, the safety measures associated with using cyanobacteria will be thoroughly explained through brochures, informational sessions with the community, and engagement with local media to reach a broader audience.
Shalini Beath
Manager of Energy and Sustainability Office at Energy Smart Rochester
To ensure our project benefits the local community, we spoke with Ms. Shalini Beath to gain insights into the City of Rochester’s sustainability plans and how our technology could support these initiatives.
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Purpose
Ms. Beath, the Manager of the Energy and Sustainability office at Energy Smart Rochester, provided advice on integrating our technology into Rochester’s energy goals, with a focus on renewable energy and climate resilience.
Stakeholder Response
Ms. Beath was enthusiastic about our project, noting its potential to power heat pumps and provide clean heating and cooling, which are critical to combat the city’s harsh winters. Additionally, she identified significant barriers to new technologies adoption, such as cost, unfamiliarity, and a shortage of skilled workers.
Action Plan
Based on her feedback, we plan to further explore Rochester's socioeconomic conditions to design affordable solutions and create outreach strategies that build trust and address barriers to adoption.
Moving forward, we aim to collaborate with city officials to showcase the functionality of our biophotovoltaic technology and pursue grant opportunities to enhance its competitiveness with traditional solar panels.
Abigail McHugh Grifa/h4>
NY Mothers Out Front Chapter
To position our biophotovoltaic project within the broader context of climate solutions and social justice, we spoke with Ms. Abigail McHugh Grifa to gain insights into climate advocacy and systemic issues.
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Purpose
As the founding member of Climate Solutions Accelerator and New York State's first Mothers Out Front chapter, Ms. McHugh Grifa’s insight helped us integrate the pillars of climate justice into our project. This makes our project more relevant to communities facing climate change impacts, increasing chances for adoption by the public.
Stakeholder Response
Ms McHugh Grifa highlighted the need for collective action, creating solutions with others rather than focusing solely on individual efforts to implement more impactful solutions. Furthermore, she stressed the importance of reforming the current business model and energy infrastructure, as the outdated grid is not equipped to handle new energy sources. Finally, she assured us that new technologies do not need to be flawless, as there are also many challenges facing current energy sources. Therefore, she advised us to focus on our overall positive impact and ensure that it outweights potential issues
Action Plan
The interview encouraged us to focus on sustainability efforts such as teaching other stakeholders and end-users the benefits of biophotovoltaic technology, and how it can contribute towards Rochester climate action goals.
Future Steps
If we were to implement our project, we would reach out to other local organizations such as the Genesee Finger Lakes Climate Collective to introduce our biophotovoltaic cell, as well as develop a long-term commercialization strategy to enter the renewable energy market. We will explore funding options that support grid updates and design a a new business model for energy distribution.
Carra Sahler J.D.
Director of the Green Energy Institute at Lewis and Clark Law School
We had the opportunity to interview Carra Sahler, J.D., Director of the Green Energy Institute at Lewis and Clark Law School and a specialist in environmental policy. Our goal was to gain insights on aligning our project with existing climate efforts and policies. During our discussion, she provided valuable information about current technologies in use and highlighted the disparities in access to cleaner fuel sources.
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Purpose
The purpose of this interview was to explore how our project can address real-world issues. We sought insights from an expert in working with individuals dedicated to promoting green energy. Our goal was to understand what they would prioritize if they were developing their own clean energy solutions.L
Stakeholder Response
We began by asking about the specific actions the Green Institute takes to combat climate change. She explained that their primary focus is on forming committees to advocate for changes in government policies related to fuel sourcing and addressing price disparities in lower-income communities, where fuel costs are rising. They are committed to eliminating fossil fuels as an energy source and holding organizations accountable for transparently reporting greenhouse gas emissions. When we discussed our project, she appreciated that we do not involve fossil fuel companies at any stage of our process and mentioned that she didn’t see "any downsides" to our project. However, she advised us to ensure that we do not create hazardous waste with the cyanobacteria or contribute to wastewater issues.
Action Plan
Following this interview, we focused on the final implementation of our project. In particular, our technology must be accessible to lower-income communities. To achieve this, we aim to minimize production costs, allowing us to offer electricity produced by our technology at an affordable rate. Additionally, we considered how to ensure that our carbon-negative energy source is reliable, as this is crucial for effectively serving these communities.
Future Steps
For continuing project development, we would seek partnerships with organizations like the Green Institute to gain a better understanding of the communities we aim to serve. Additionally, we will continue education efforts about green energy and its advantages.
Dr Karen Berger
We spoke with environmental science professor Karen Berger to ensure our project benefits the university community and to understand the university's sustainability and energy objectives. Her insight helps guarantee our project aligns with the institution’s long-term goals, such as reducing carbon emissions, adopting renewable energy, and contributing to campus energy self-sufficiency.
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Purpose
To create an immediate local impact that sets the stage for our technology adoption by larger institutions, it is crucial to test out our technology on a smaller and more familiar scale like our university. Thus, an interview with a faculty member in our school was essential to learn more about available university resources.
Stakeholder Response
Professor Berger emphasized the potential value of biophotovoltaic technology in contributing to the university’s energy goals. Since the university has ⅓ of its electricity powered by natural gas and the remaining energy comes from solar and geothermal sources, our plan of creating carbon-negative energy sources would be a positive account for the university. Her other suggestions include exploring sustainability metrics, and to focus on the long term impact of our device.
Action Plan
Per her feedback, we plan to conduct a life cycle assessment and carbon analysis to measure our technology's overall efficiency and net carbon emissions. Additionally, we worked with the hardware team to design our biophotovoltaic cell to allow for easy separation of components.
Future Steps
If we were to implement our project, we plan on starting small and attempting to power one campus building, such as the Rush Rhees library. This will help us to best utilize our campus limited space to gain valuable data for moving forward.
Dr Kristin Doughty
Professor Doughty, an anthropologist from the University of Rochester, offered valuable guidance in navigating the economic and cultural challenges our technology would likely encounter. She gave us thought-provoking questions on how to engage communities and align our goals with both the public and private sector. These guidelines are crucial to ensure that our biophotovoltaic cells are socially equitable, environmentally friendly, scalable and sustainable.
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Purpose
We reached out to anthropology professor Kristin Doughty to gain a deeper understanding of the socio-cultural and economic factors that might influence the success of biophotovoltaic technology.
Stakeholder Response
Instead of providing specific recommendations, Professor Doughty posed several foundational guiding questions for assessing the socio-cultural implications of our technology. These questions included the differences between microgrids and the national grid, optimal times for power generation, energy storage capacity, infrastructure needs, and distribution logistics. She urged us to clarify whether we are primarily solving a social, economic, or environmental problem. She ended the interview by saying “If power is entirely privatized, we end up with the Elon Musk problem” which encourages us to involve the public sector in our project deployment.
Action Plan
Her input suggests that our policy and practice team should collaborate closely with other sub-teams to address these key questions. More details on this will be provided in the Reflection and Proposed Implementation section of our Human Practice page.
Future Steps
For the project to move forward, we will seek support from government and non-profit organizations to help establish regulations, ensuring that our energy solution benefits everyone and avoids being monopolized by the wealthy.
Dr Jonathan Herington
As a bioethicist from the University of Rochester, Professor Herington was able to provide valuable insight on the ethical, societal, and safety considerations for our biophotovoltaic technology. His feedback is critical for ensuring our project balances benefits with ethical responsibility, particularly concerning genetically modified cyanobacteria and their potential risks.
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Purpose
Professor Herrington’s guidance helps us ensure that our project is not only technically viable but also ethically responsible, socially equitable, and well-received by the public.
Stakeholder Response
Professor Herington emphasized that while adaptation to climate change is important, the primary focus should remain on mitigation, as adaptation is often more costly and reactive. He recommended implementing a secondary safeguard, such as a kill switch, to prevent accidental release of the bacteria from the paper substrate, which could cause unforeseen environmental or societal damage. He ended the interview by highlighting the importance of ensuring that the benefits and risks are fairly distributed, making the project equitable for all.
Action Plan
After the interview, we worked closely with the Hardware team to minimize chances of cyanobacteria escape. We also continued with our cost-benefit analysis and drafted a comprehensive communication plan will to effectively convey the risks and safeguards to the public and other stakeholders.
Future Steps
As our project progresses, we will delve into further ethical considerations. This includes developing proactive measures to address potential dual-use or misuse scenarios.
Mike Whitmore
Our interview with Mr. Mike Whitmore, Executive Director of UR Energy Services and Sustainability, along with the tour of their facilities, provided crucial insights into the university's energy usage and infrastructure. He highlighted the potential of our carbon-negative biophotovoltaic technology to align with New York’s sustainability goals, suggesting a centralized distribution model for easily replaceable panels. In response, we aim to develop a distribution model and collaborate with the hardware team to prototype the panel design, paving the way for potential partnerships with local power plants for pilot programs.
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Purpose
Following our exploration of bioethics, it was crucial to engage with Mr. Whitmore, the Executive Director of UR Energy Services and Sustainability. His expertise in managing large-scale energy projects provided essential insights into overcoming organizational and technical challenges as we scale our biophotovoltaic project. Overall, his advice gives a path forward for effective integration into existing energy systems and delivers sustainable solutions for the building of a biophotovoltaic cell centered power plant in the future.
Stakeholder Response
He was impressed by our carbon-negative approach, as it aligns with New York’s sustainability goal of reducing its carbon footprint, reflected in the state’s upcoming CO2 emissions tax on electrical companies. He also suggested we create a centralized distribution center to produce easily replaceable biophotovoltaic panels, drawing a comparison to milk delivery systems of the past. This business model could be more appealing for power plants, as they would receive ready-to-integrate panels thereby reducing operational costs.
Action Plan
Based on his feedback, we drafted our proposed distribution model, which is presented in the Proposed Implementation section. We also worked with the hardware team to prototype the replaceable panel/cartridge design.
Future Steps
In order to implement our project, we will actively seek partnership with local power plants to run a pilot program to test our distribution model and the functionality of the replaceable panels.
Milestone Two: Growing Cyanobacteria
Dr Alistair McCormick
As a cyanobacteria expert from the University of Edinburgh, Dr. Alistair McCormick advised us on enhancing our cyanobacteria growth. We improved our methods following his recommendations, resulting in an increase in OD730 from 1 to close to nearly 2 within two weeks. This represented a great increase in cell density, and from there we were ready to integrate the cyanobacteria into our bio-photovoltaic cell. More details about our result can be found in the Wet Labpage.
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Purpose
As the chassis organism in our project, optimizing cyanobacteria growth was crucial for our carbon-negative energy production. Therefore, we consulted a cyanobacteria expert to enhance its growth conditions and performance.
Stakeholder Response
Dr.McCormick identified issues with our initial culture methods, particularly our overly dilute starting OD730 of 0.001 was too dilute, which led to a prolonged lag phase. He suggested ways to boost our starting OD730 to 1, accelerating our cyanobacteria growth.
Action Plan
Certain strategies were implemented following his interview. Our BG11 media concentration was increased from 1X to 5X, and a larger cyanobacteria sample was taken from our dense freshly-prepared seed culture during streaking. Light intensity was adjusted within the range of 100-300 micromoles, with the agar slant facing the light. Additionally, the temperature was adjusted from 37 C down to 30 C, the speed of our shaking incubator speed was increased, and the kanamycin dosage was doubled.
Future Steps
It was strongly recommended using conjugation over natural transformation to maximize our efficiency. However, due to our limited resources, we will continue using natural transformation. If additional resources become available, we would be eager to try out conjugation and compare the outcomes.
Dr.Johnson & Dr.Young
During our meeting with Professors Johnson and Young from Vanderbilt University, we focused on optimizing the growth of our cyanobacteria and asked for their professional insights on scaling up our project. They emphasized the importance of maintaining adequate humidity in the growth chamber, as overly dry conditions could hinder cyanobacteria growth. Additionally, they offered valuable feedback on our project’s large-scale implementation, affirming that our idea has the potential to become a reality.
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Purpose
The purpose of the interview was to consult with experts in the field of cyanobacteria. Professor Young specializes in using cyanobacteria to produce materials like lipids for fuel, while Professor Johnson studies biological clocks in microbial organisms, focusing on their expression patterns. We inquired about the light spectrum they use to grow their liquid and solid cyanobacteria cultures and discussed the doubling time they typically observe. This gave us baseline metrics to look for when growing our own cyanobacteria.
Stakeholder Response
For solid media, they provided guidance on plating and growing techniques, including the optimal thickness for spreading colonies on Petri dishes and the importance of adding water to our incubator to maintain humidity. Finally, we asked for their thoughts on scaling our solar cell idea into a large-scale product. They acknowledged that our idea is "worth pursuing" but cautioned that economic feasibility could be a significant challenge, advising us not to expect to become "the next Elon Musk in a few years." However, they also provided strong encouragement, stating, "People like you are how science moves forward". We left the interview with valuable advice and renewed purpose.
Action Plan
Following the interview, we experimented with different light spectra as suggested. We tested using full-spectrum light as well as red light, which is known to enhance photosynthesis. Additionally, we adjusted the intensity of the lights to prevent potential photoinhibition, as excessive light can damage the photosynthetic machinery, leading to decreased cyanobacteria growth.
Future Steps
Our project will likely not lead to tremendous fame and success in a short time period. However, we will keep moving forward out of our love of science and our dedication to protecting thid world from climate change.
Milestone Three: Refining Hardware and Modeling Design
Dr Paolo Bombelli
Dr. Bombelli, an expert in biophotovoltaics from the University of Cambridge, recommended focusing on the potential value of our ethanol module. He gave us invaluable advice on optimizing cyanobacteria transformation and cultivation techniques. Finally, we discussed innovative biophotovoltaic design and application.
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Purpose
Our meeting with an expert in biophotovoltaics gave great help with system optimization, integration and troubleshooting issues. His plans and advice helped us manage biological aspects of our project such as controlling cyanobacteria behavior under varying experimental and growth conditions.
Stakeholder Response
Dr. Bombelli showed concern with our project goal, as CO2 sequestration and electricity generation processes both compete for electrons from the photosystems, thus lowering the efficiency of both pathways. He highlighted the potential profitability of our ethanol module, as it is easier to produce in biological systems than it is in chemical ones. Other feedback focused on our cultivation technique, particularly our difficulties in growing cyanobacteria on solid media, along with challenges related to the printing and electrode design.
Action Plan
After his interview, our hardware and modeling team explored an additional redox potential source to manage the trade-off between CO2 sequestration and electricity generation. More experiments were done with various electrode configurations, and a plan was developed to use carbon nanotubes for anode printing. Meanwhile, our wet lab team reached out to Dr. McCormick for the simplified transformation protocol, and purchased an air pump with silicone tubing to promote cyanobacteria growth. Our policy and practice team continued to explore ethanol applications and marketing strategies.
Future Steps
When more time and resources are available, we plan to test electroporation to compare the photosynthetic performance of cyanobacteria transformed using this method against our current natural transformation technique.
Dr Eileen Bushnell
Our interview with Professor Eileen Bushnell, a Printmaking professor at the Rochester Institute of Technology, helped us understand the technical challenges of screen printing cyanobacteria for our biophotovoltaic project. Her advice on sterilization, screen mesh sizes, emulsion coating, and cleaning methods greatly enhanced our printing process while improving functionality of our biophotovoltaic cell.
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Purpose
To transform our engineered cyanobacteria into functional biophotovoltaic cells, we need to screen print it onto a paper substrate. This process will be amplified greatly when scaling up for mass production. Thus, the screen printing session with Professor Eileen Bushnell from Rochester Institute of Technology was helpful for us to understand the technical challenges and best practices for successfully printing cyanobacteria. Her expertise led to marked improvements in our screen printing setup in all aspects.
Stakeholder Response
Professor Bushnell emphasized the importance of maintaining a sterile environment, recommending that the paper substrate be wrapped in tinfoil and autoclaved. For optimal bacterial growth, she advised using trays with glass lids to allow airflow while preventing contamination, and storing agar and microbial cultures in a refrigerator. She also recommended using larger mesh screens (80 mesh) for better agar distribution and applying a single layer of emulsion for the cyanobacteria stencil. A 100-second exposure using a blacklight unit is ideal for proper emulsion hardening. Additionally, she stressed the importance of cleaning screens with eco-friendly products like Envirostrip to extend equipment life. For printing materials, she suggested using high-quality film such as Pictorico for clarity and precision, and round-edge squeegees for even ink distribution.
Action Plan
Based on her input, our hardware team has refined the prototype screen printing protocol, which will be detailed in the Hardware section.
Future Steps
To implement our project, we will develop a maintenance protocol for screen cleaning and recycling cyanobacteria. We will also continue to explore methods for consistent, large-scale printing to support project scalability.
Dr Jenny Zhang
Our interview with Dr. Zhang provided valuable insights into modeling and electrode design. She emphasized the importance of balancing carbon fixation with electricity generation, suggesting to improve electrode conductivity by altering carbon properties. In response, the hardware and modeling team found a way to utilize molecular chemistry knowledge to develop and test models that optimize for key parameters.
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Purpose
We consulted Dr. Zhang to address the biological and technical challenges of developing an efficient biophotovoltaic cell. Her expertise in rewiring photosynthesis pathways was crucial in helping us enhance the capture and conversion of solar energy into electricity for our biophotovoltaic cell.
Stakeholder Response
Dr. Zhang noted that carbon may not be the most conductive option for the electrodes and proposed making it more hydrophobic to improve performance at the interface with cyanobacteria. Additionally, she emphasized the importance of understanding cyanobacteria biofilm formation for effective electron transfer. Finally, she provided the contact information for other experts in her department, Dr. Bren for electrochemical insights and Dr. Bombelli for biophotovoltaic expertise.
Action Plan
Following the interview, we developed our understanding of molecular chemistry to refine our technology. This obtained knowledge was applied to develop and test models predicting and optimizing key parameters such as electrode length, distance, surface area, and concentration differences.
Future Steps
We plan to explore 3D printing for our cyanobacteria in the future, following Dr. Zhang's approach. This method will enable precise control over the material's structure and density, enhancing the biophotovoltaic cells' surface area for optimal light penetration and electron transfer.
Dr Kara Bren
We consulted Dr. Bren, a molecular chemist, to get her perspective on optimizing the electrode design for our project. Dr. Bren highlighted the impact of concentration differences on cell voltage potential and current efficiency, advising us on methods to measure conductivity. Our hardware team used her advice to assess the voltage potential and resistance across electrodes for our biophotovoltaic cells.
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Purpose
Input from a molecular chemist was invaluable for us to develop our electrode design such that it maximizes conductivity, stability and interactions with the cyanobacteria. We were also able to get info regarding whether all components of our biophotovoltaic system are chemically compatible.
Stakeholder Response
Dr. Bren emphasized on how concentration differences affect the cell voltage potential, and reminded us to be aware of potential losses in current that can impact our system's overall efficiency. Additionally, she suggested we look into producing butanol by coupling ethanol with other processes.
Action Plan
Following the interview, our hardware team utilized a multimeter to measure voltage potential and resistance across anode and cathode according to her directions. Several tests were also done on measuring resistivity to test conductivity with a dry anode and cathode.
Future Steps
We will consider coupling ethanol with other processes to make butanol and other valuable chemical products. This could provide another layer to our project, further improving the cost efficiency of our biophotovoltaic cells.
Milestone 4: Upscaling
Kiran Gathani
Mr. Kiran Gathani, an analyst from Cyanocapture, highlighted the challenges of scaling up biophotovoltaic projects with cyanobacteria. He made special note of the low energy efficiency, and suggested strategies for converting cyanobacteria into graphite to enhance carbon sequestration. In response, our team refined our recycling and disposal strategies of different components of our biophotovoltaic device.
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Purpose
We consulted Mr. Kiran Gathani to get his advice on best practices for scaling up cyanobacteria growth, as it is the chassis organism that directly impacts the efficiency and viability of our energy production system.
Stakeholder Response
Mr Gathani shared that scaling up biophotovoltaic projects with cyanobacteria and algae presents significant challenges, as their previous attempts at biophotovoltaics yielded limited electricity. He was interested in our project's anode and cathode design. Additionally, he suggested adopting a similar approach to Cyanocapture for our project's spent materials to effectively transformed dead cyanobacteria into graphite. This can help improve carbon sequestration by preventing carbon dioxide from being released after the death of the cells.
Action Plan
Drawing on Mr. Gathani’s experience, our policy and practice team refined our cyanobacteria handling strategy, and researched methods to convert spent cyanobacteria into graphite.
Future Steps
To accomplish our project, we will seek collaboration with Cyanocapture to tackle the challenges of scaling our biophotovoltaic project.
Spencer & Weissert
Mr. Spencer, a project engineer, and Ms. Weissert, a commercial photovoltaic designer from NY GreenSpark Solar, highlighted the challenges of competing with traditional solar panel efficiency and suggested exploring ethanol as a dual-purpose solution. Following their advice, we explored ethanol applications, focused on domestic production, and redoubled our commitment to sustainability by promising to use eco-friendly materials while repurposing existing infrastructure.
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Purpose
Since our device operates similarly to a solar panel, consulting with experts from the solar installation field is crucial for understanding the competitive landscape. Their insights will help us highlight the unique selling points of our technology.
Stakeholder Response
NYGreenSpark Solar outlined the challenges in adoption of our bio-photovoltaic cell, including limited domestic production opportunities and competition with a well-established industry to exceed the efficiency range (20-40%) of traditional solar panels. They recommend exploring the use of ethanol as a dual-purpose solution, as well as to focus on our sustainability efforts while advertising our device.
Action Plan
Following the interview, we explored various ethanol applications, and investigated opportunities for domestic production of our bio-photovoltaic device. We have also continued to use eco-friendly materials such as paper and carbon ink, and considered repurposing existing infrastructure and recycling on-site to mitigate environmental impact.
Future Steps
If time permits, we plan to establish partnerships with local manufacturers and policymakers to advocate for policies that support domestic production and sustainability in renewable energy.
Gitanshu Bhatia
Mr. Gitanshu Bhatia, a fermentation scientist from Lanzatech, provided critical insights on minimizing contamination through selection pressure and optimizing hardware for mass transfer. Following his recommendations, we updated our lab protocols to ensure sterility, enhanced automation, and conducted an economic analysis to highlight our sustainability advantages over traditional ethanol production methods.
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Purpose
In an attempt to boost the commercial viability of our product, we met with Mr. Bhati. His advice provided critical insight for scaling up and increasing the efficiency of our technology, which would thereby improve its market positioning.
Stakeholder Response
To scale up fermentation while avoiding contamination, Mr Bhatia suggested we consider selection pressures, sufficient substrates, and electron donor media. For hardware compatibility, he recommended optimizing mass transfer and ensuring resource availability for economic system design. Furthermore, he outlined challenges in convincing the industry to adopt our technology, including the 15-year return period for economic benefits to surpass the initial costs. Another competitive disadvantage for bio-ethanol production is that the US industry is more inclined to adopt traditional corn-ethanol methods due to its position as the largest corn producer globally.
Action Plan
Certain approaches were implemented following his interview, such as updating our lab safety protocols to incorporate stringent sterile techniques, ensuring strain homogeneity to minimize mutation, and enhancing automation for our hardware. To facilitate market adoption, we conducted a comprehensive economic analysis that emphasized our sustainability efforts in reducing carbon emissions compared to traditional ethanol production methods.
Future Steps
A deep dive into the entrepreneurship aspects of our technology will be necessary for future growth. Many strategies will be necessary, such as expanding our market into regions with higher demand for sustainable solutions, and devising strategies to shorten the return on investment period.
Reflections
Our experience of engaging with various stakeholders as part of the Human Practices component of our project has been a valuable learning journey. To turn these experiences into actionable insights, we employed Gibbs' Reflective Cycle to systematically evaluate and reflect on the process. The Gibbs' cycle consists of six stages: description, feelings, evaluation, analysis, conclusion, and action plan, which we followed to assess our stakeholder interactions and improve our approach moving forward.1
Description
In the early stages of our project, we aimed to ensure that our biophotovoltaic solution would be both responsible and impactful in addressing the climate crisis. Our Human Practices journey began with extensive literature research to understand the magnitude of the problem and identify key stakeholders whose expertise could help us fill knowledge gaps. We recognized the importance of engaging with a diverse range of individuals from academia, industry, government, and environmental organizations to gain insights into the ethics, sustainability, and profitability of our project.
After compiling a comprehensive list of stakeholders, we reached out via email and Linkedln to schedule interviews. The purpose of these meetings was to explore potential challenges in scaling the technology, securing funding, and addressing regulatory and environmental concerns, all while ensuring our project's long-term sustainability and market viability. These diverse perspectives allow us to refine our solution and make informed decisions about its implementation.
Feeling
As we embarked on this process, we experienced a mix of emotions. We were excited about the opportunity to engage with experts in different fields, knowing that these conversations would not only deepen our understanding of various aspects of our project but also improve our networking and communication skills. It was our first time interviewing multiple stakeholders within a relatively short period, and this opened up new opportunities for collaboration and learning.
However, this excitement was coupled with anxiety. We were concerned about whether we could effectively convey the complexities of our project to stakeholders who may not be familiar with it. Additionally, we worried about whether our questions would be relevant to their specific expertise and whether they would find our project compelling enough to offer meaningful feedback.
Evaluation
Despite our initial concerns, the interviews were overwhelmingly positive and insightful. Stakeholders from diverse backgrounds were genuinely interested in our biophotovoltaic fuel cell project and provided valuable feedback that helped us consider its broader implications. They shared their expertise, offering constructive criticism and suggestions for improving our approach.
However, a significant challenge emerged in the evaluation process: deciding which feedback to implement. Many stakeholders had worked on similar projects for much longer and had access to more resources. In contrast, our team had only nine months and limited resources to complete our project. As a result, we had to carefully choose which solutions to prioritize, focusing on what was feasible within our time frame while still aligning with our long-term vision.
Analysis
The most important lesson we learned from these interviews was the need to strike a balance between technical feasibility and practicality. While our initial focus had been on the technological aspects of our project, the feedback from stakeholders underscored the importance of considering the social structures and policies that would support the adoption of our biophotovoltaic fuel cell technology. In short, it became clear that a successful project is not just about creating innovative solutions but also about ensuring that these solutions can be realistically implemented and sustained in real-world contexts.
Conclusion
The stakeholder interviews were essential to the development of our biophotovoltaic fuel cell project, through directly addressing key challenges—such as improving hardware design, optimizing growth conditions for cyanobacteria, and exploring market adoption strategies. These conversations have already led to significant adjustments, including enhanced lab protocols, updated screen printing techniques, and a more comprehensive understanding of the regulatory and commercial landscapes for bio-based technologies.
Action Plan
As a direct result of the interviews, we have already implemented several key changes. These include optimizing our cyanobacteria assay for better growth, enhancing the recyclability of our hardware, conducting a comprehensive life cycle assessment and cost-benefit analysis, and creating a detailed plan for scaling up the technology. These actionable steps ensure that our project is scientifically robust and positioned for real-world application in combating climate change.
Moving forward, we plan to actively seek funding opportunities to scale up our project and build strategic partnerships with industry leaders and academic institutions. These collaborations will not only help accelerate the development of our biophotovoltaic fuel cell but also ensure its successful integration into the renewable energy market.
Analysis
How Will Our Technology be Used?
Our biophotovoltaic technology will primarily be used in power plants rather than individual homes due to its large-scale design and the complexity of maintaining cyanobacteria. We envision having our own facilities to create biophotovoltaic fuel cell “cartridges” using our automated screen printer. These cartridges will contain our cyanobacteria during transport, and will be shipped to our power plants that will be based on our technology. We estimate that 7.842 mL of ethanol will be generated from each 52 ft. cartridge that contain 26 in.2 of cyanobacteria.
These power plants can then use and replace these biophotovoltaic fuel cell cartridges as needed to generate electricity. The power plants will be specially designed to handle these operations, possessing the necessary infrastructure with access to natural light, and the capacity to upscale the biophotovoltaic cells as energy needs increase.
Natural light will be the primary source of energy for our biophotovoltaic system in the power plants, since the technology relies on photosynthetic cyanobacteria. We will design our power plants with large windows and skylights to allow for ample sunlight for the cyanobacteria to grow optimally. While artificial light could be an option, it would be less efficient and counterproductive in terms of energy sustainability, as it would require additional energy to power the lights, thus reducing net energy output.1
Our biophotovoltaic fuel cell technology will be distributed to our power plants in the form of specialized cartridges. The power plants’ role will be simplified to only handling the distribution of electricity. The plants would not need to engage in the more complex aspects of technology development or the handling of raw biological materials, which will reduce the operational burden. Overall, this system will make the transition to using biophotovoltaic technology more appealing.
Instead of sending electricity directly to users, the power generated by our biophotovoltaic cells will be stored in a battery. Since the biophotovoltaic cells produce electricity intermittently depending on light availability, using a battery will ensure a steady supply of energy even during low-light conditions. This storage solution offers reliability and flexibility, as energy generated during the day can be used at night or when sunlight is limited. This is especially crucial in a place like Rochester, where the weather is highly variable and tends towards rain and snow. We envision this stored energy to be used to provide a consistent power supply for heating and cooling systems throughout our university campus, with provisions in place for scaling up based on initial successes.
As a specific and manageable goal, the electricity generated by our biophotovoltaic fuel cells could be used to power a building such as the University of Rochester’s Rush Rhees Library. With this idea, our power plant can supply energy to a single large consumer rather than many small households, making it easier to monitor and manage. The library provides a controlled environment to test the scalability and effectiveness of the biophotovoltaic technology, offering real-world insight into the system’s success. Through this approach, we aim to demonstrate the feasibility of biophotovoltaic technology on a large scale while also testing the reliability and sustainability of our bio-energy.
Biophotovoltaic vs Traditional Energy Market Analysis
We conducted market research on our biophotovoltaic technology to gain insights into the competitive landscape and understand the current trends within the renewable energy sector, enabling us to make informed decisions regarding our project’s development and implementation. To summarize our findings in an organized manner, we utilized a SWOT analysis, which categorizes our insights into Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats.2
Strengths
- Dual Purpose: Our biophotovoltaic technology can generate both electricity and byproducts like ethanol, providing dual energy outputs for various application
- Environmental Sustainability: Biophotovoltaic technology utilizes photosynthetic microorganisms (cyanobacteria) to generate electricity, which captures atmospheric CO2 which contributes to carbon-negative energy generation.
- Resource Efficiency: The cyanobacteria used in biophotovoltaic systems do not require arable land or extensive water resources, unlike bioethanol from crops. This opens up opportunities to produce energy without competing with agriculture for resources.
- Innovative Potential: Biophotovoltaic technology is still relatively new, with a wide scope for research and development. Innovations in genetic engineering, efficiency, and system design could lead to major breakthroughs, making biophotovoltaic more competitive with mature energy technologies.
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Weaknesses
- Lower Energy Efficiency: BPV systems currently produce lower amounts of electricity per square meter compared to traditional solar panels or wind turbines. The efficiency of converting light into energy via cyanobacteria is still far behind silicon-based photovoltaic technologies. Our interview with Mr. Spencer and Ms. Weissert from New York GreenSpark Solar indicates that traditional solar panels have an efficiency rate of 20-40%, which is notably higher than our current performance.3
- Vulnerability to Environment Factors: Biophotovoltaic depends on environmental conditions, such as light availability. While power plants could optimize light exposure, any failures in maintaining optimal growth conditions for cyanobacteria could result in system inefficiency. To address this, fresh cartridges will need to be resupplied approximately every three days, with the systems can be back up to full speed right after the next shipment.
- Limited Market Awareness and Support Biophotovoltaic is not as well known or established as other renewable energy sources, such as solar or wind. Lack of public knowledge and understanding can limit investor interest and government support, slowing down commercialization and adoption.
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Opportunities
- Growing Demand for Carbon-Negative Solution: As the world transitions toward net-zero emissions, the biophotovoltaic market could benefit from a growing emphasis on technologies that not only reduce carbon emissions but also capture and sequester carbon, positioning biophotovoltaic as a critical player in the energy landscape.
- Synergy with Other Technologies: Biophotovoltaic systems could be combined with other energy storage solutions, like batteries, to improve the reliability of electricity delivery. They could also be co-located with existing renewable energy systems to optimize the use of natural resources such as sunlight
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Threats
- Unpredictable Energy Market: Fluctuations in oil and natural gas prices could make it difficult for biophotovoltaic to establish itself as a cost-effective alternative. Additionally, improvements in the efficiency and cost of silicon-based solar panels may continue to outpace biophotovoltaic technology.
- Regulatory and Safety Concern: The bio-based nature of biophotovoltaic could raise concerns over potential environmental risks, such as the unintended release of genetically modified organisms or other biohazards. Strict regulations and safety protocols could slow down the adoption of the technology.
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Ethanol Production Fueling the Future
Dr. Bombelli, an expert in biophotovoltaics from the University of Cambridge, expressed enthusiasm for our innovative ethanol module, highlighting several compelling advantages that distinguish our approach from traditional methods. Our approach of enzymatic alcohol production is not only simpler but also more cutting-edge compared to conventional chemical processes.
The cutting-edge aspect of our approach stems from our utilization of synthetic biology, a rapidly emerging field that has gained significant recognition.4 This involves using engineered organisms, such as Zymomonas mobilis, which have been genetically modified to overexpress critical enzymes like alcohol dehydrogenase and pyruvate decarboxylase to accelerate its ethanol fermentation pathway. The simplicity of our method lies in its operation under milder conditions—lower temperatures and pressures—than traditional chemical methods, which often require harsh reagents and extensive energy inputs. Additionally, the reliance on specific enzymes reduces the complexity associated with chemical catalysts, resulting in fewer hazardous materials and a more streamlined production process. This combination of safety and efficiency makes enzymatic production an appealing alternative in the pursuit of sustainable ethanol solutions.
Furthermore, our ethanol offers a high value proposition due to its broad range of applications. It can be utilized in various beverages, including carbon-negative whiskey and specialty algal drinks. In the biofuel sector, our ethanol addresses the rising interest in renewable energy sources as awareness of environmental issues grows to combat climate change. Furthermore, ethanol serves as a cleaning agent, a solvent in paints and coatings, and an antiseptic in hand sanitizers and disinfectants—products that have surged in demand during the COVID-19 pandemic. Additionally, it also functions as a fragrance component, food flavoring agent, feedstock for the production of other chemicals, and formulations for pesticides.5
Cost-effectiveness is another significant advantage of our ethanol production method. Our approach will be more economical and resource-efficient than the traditional corn ethanol production methods, which often rely heavily on agricultural inputs and face competition from food production. This cost efficiency will be analyzed in our cost-benefit analysis below.6
Cost-benefit Analysis
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Direct Cost |
Indirect Cost |
Intangible Cost |
Opportunity Cost |
Potential Risk Cost |
| Cyanovolt Ethanol Production Approach |
Includes both the start-up cost (our cyanobacteria and the screen printing machinery), which can only be calculated once; and our running cost, which will be calculated for every batch of ethanol production.More information can be found in our budget sheet attached below.
Start-up cost:
Synechocystis sp. 6803 from AtCC - $460 or Synechococcus sp. 3145 from UTEX - $125
Cost of our automated screen printer: $550
Total start-up cost: $1,135
Running cost:
Cost of our 10L BG11 media for cyanobacteria growth: $170
Cost of our 1g kanamycin in powder form: $66.2
Total running cost: $236.2
If one cell can produce 80 gallon of ethanol, then the direct cost for each gallon is:
Total start-up cost: 80 = $1,135 : 80 = $14.19 per gallon of ethanol, but we only pay this cost once
Total running cost : 80 = $236 : 80 = $2.95 per gallon.
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Includes the facility expense, resources consumption (electricity, water usage, rent, etc.), the maintenance cost, and the personnel time for research and development as well as setting up and managing the system.
Overall, our infrastructure can be more streamlined, concentrating on laboratory configurations and smaller-scale production systems. |
Biophotovoltaic systems are still relatively unknown, which may make potential investors or stakeholders hesitant to engage due to unfamiliarity with the technology. |
Risk of losing potential investments in more established renewable energy sectors. |
Challenges regarding efficiency, the long-term stability of cyanobacteria, and maintaining productivity. |
| Traditional Corn Ethanol Production Approach |
The overall cost of harvesting, collecting, storing and delivering corn stover biomass to the gate of a 30 MGPY biorefinery plant was estimated to be $82.40 per ton.
Considering that 80 gallons of ethanol are produced from each ton of corn stover biomass, the overall feedstock supply cost would be around $1 per gallon of cellulosic ethanol. So cost per gallon = cost per ton : gallon of ethanol per ton = 82.4 : 80 = $1.03 per gallon, which is more economical than our approach.10 |
Traditional corn ethanol production requires excessive farmland, with US farmers planting about 140,000 square miles of corn annually, of which 30% is used for ethanol production.11 |
Well-established market, does not require public awareness |
Less opportunity cost, already proven viable |
Traditional ethanol production relies on raw materials like corn or sugarcane, as well as energy sources, whose prices can fluctuate due to market conditions, introducing uncertainty into production costs. |
Download the Cost Sheet!
Sustainable Development Goals
We prioritized sustainability throughout our project development, recognizing its importance for fostering long-term environmental health and social equity. By adhering to the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly Goals 7, 12, and 13, we align our efforts with the broader 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.12 This agenda emphasizes the necessity of collective action to address global challenges. By integrating these goals into our project framework, we aim to create effective and equitable solutions that lead to a more sustainable future for all.
Alignment with Sustainable Development Goal 7: Affordable and Energy
Goal 7 ensures access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all. Our development of a biophotovoltaic cell that captures atmospheric CO2 and generates electricity and ethanol contributes to a renewable energy source that actively reduces carbon emissions. According to the United Nations' 2023 report, renewable sources power nearly 30% of energy consumption in the electricity sector, though challenges remain in heating and transport.13 Our project addresses these challenges by providing energy for heating during winter and cooling in summer. Moreover, the report highlights that while developing countries experience a 9.6 percent annual growth in renewable energy installations in 2023, international financial flows for clean energy are declining. Our technology aims to be more affordable than existing renewable energy options, making clean energy more accessible for industrial power plants. This affordability supports Goal 7 by facilitating the transition of communities like Rochester to sustainable energy without imposing significant cost burdens.
Alignment with Sustainable Development Goal 12: Responsible consumption and production
A clean energy source should be rooted in a responsible production process that both minimizes environmental impact and maximizes efficiency.14 This aligns directly with Goal 12, which promotes sustainable consumption and production patterns to achieve this balance. The United Nations 2023 report highlights significant disparities in material footprints across regions, with high-income areas such as Northern Africa, Western Asia, Europe, and Northern America exceeding their domestic material consumption by 18%, while lower-income regions like Latin America, the Caribbean, and sub-Saharan Africa fall below consumption levels by 17%. Our project addresses this environmental disparity by using recyclable materials such as paper substrate, bioink and used pipette tip boxes. This ensure that our energy system does not contribute to waste or pollution. Furthermore, we are developing our own distribution system in partnership with power plants to efficiently distribute the panels, reducing waste and dependence on complex, resource-heavy supply chains. This strategy emphasizes responsible production and ensures that the consumption of our energy technology supports broader sustainability goals, aligning directly with Goal 12. Explore our Sustainability section for more details on our recyclable panels and our Proposed Implementation section to learn about our distribution system.
Alignment with Sustainable Development Goal 13: Climate Action
Our goal of producing energy responsibly is to combat the climate crisis by reducing the frequency of severe weather events and ecosystem disruptions, which disproportionately affect vulnerable communities and threaten global economic stability. This mission closely aligns with Goal 13. By using engineered cyanobacteria to sequester atmospheric CO2 and generate energy, our project helps offset emissions and can contribute to long-term reductions in atmospheric carbon levels. As Professor Herington highlighted in an interview, our approach significantly reduces greenhouse gas emissions and aims to limit global warming. Unlike adaptation strategies that simply respond to climate change impacts, our focus on mitigation addresses its root causes, preventing future harm.
Life-Cycle Assessment
We prioritize the sustainability of our product throughout its entire lifecycle, from material extraction to end-of-life management, by conducting a cradle-to-cradle assessment. While we distribute our bio-photovoltaic panels to power plants, we remain committed to environmental responsibility through this comprehensive evaluation. Inspired by the Edinburgh iGEM team of 2018, we are performing a life cycle assessment to thoroughly assess the environmental impact of our bio-photovoltaic cell. This assessment quantifies its environmental impact by adhering to the four stages outlined in the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 14040 guidelines.15
Goal and Scope Definition
- Goal: To assess the environmental impacts of the biophotovoltaic cell throughout its life cycle and identify opportunities for improvement in sustainability.
- Scope:
- Our functional unit is 1 kWh of electricity generated
- Our system boundaries start from raw material extraction to manufacturing, installation, operation and end-of-life disposal/recycling. Attach below is our biophotovoltaic cell life cycle inventory
A.Raw material extraction
The primary raw materials for our biophotovoltaic cells include cyanobacteria, components for the fuel cell such as conductive inks, and the necessary substrates used in creating the biofuel cell cartridges. Other essential materials include the ingredients for cyanobacteria culturing, such as growth media, and the materials required to construct the hardware for the fuel cells, such as electrodes and the automated screen printing cartridges.
B.Manufacturing
Our specialized facility, Cyanovolt, will use an automated screen printer to manufacture biophotovoltaic fuel cell cartridges. This process includes embedding cyanobacteria into the bio-ink and printing it onto a substrate, forming the core of the biophotovoltaic cell. The manufacturing process also involves creating other cell components such as electrodes, ensuring that each cell is prepared for large-scale energy production.
C.Installation
The biophotovoltaic fuel cell cartridges will be transported to power plants equipped with the infrastructure needed to operate and maintain the cells. The installation phase includes integrating the cartridges into the power plants and ensuring that the plants have access to natural light through skylights and windows for optimal cyanobacteria growth. The installation also involves setting up battery storage systems to manage the intermittent electricity generation and ensuring the power plants can scale up as energy demand grows.
D.Operation
Once installed, the biophotovoltaic system will operate by utilizing sunlight, allowing cyanobacteria to perform photosynthesis and generate ethanol. This electricity will be stored in batteries to ensure a continuous energy supply during low-light conditions. The power plants will manage electricity distribution and periodically replace the biophotovoltaic cartridges as needed to sustain energy production.
E.End of life disposal or Recycling
At the end of their life cycle, the biophotovoltaic fuel cell cartridges will be disassembled for recycling. Components such as the electrodes and substrates will be repurposed for future production cycles. The cyanobacteria will either be safely disposed of or used in other biological applications. Our system will focus on sustainable disposal methods to minimize waste and reduce environmental impact.
Inventory Analysis
Data were collected based on the scope specified previously. Most of the datasets applied in this study were acquired from the Ecoinvent v2.0 database, and the remaining data was obtained from literature.
Impact Assessment
- To test that our project is carbon-negative, we focused on ensuring our net global warming potential is smaller than 0, which mean that our project will sequester more atmospheric CO2
- Based on our wet lab experiment, we estimate that 7.68 x 10 -2 mmol CO2 will be sequestered per hour per one biophotovoltaic cell
Interpretation
Conducting a life-cycle assessment (LCA) allows us to fully comprehend the environmental impact of each phase, from raw material extraction to the final disposal of the product. By identifying areas with potential for sustainability improvements, we can craft a detailed and responsible strategy for the disposal and recycling of biophotovoltaic components, as outlined below. Our goal is to establish a system that not only produces carbon-negative energy but also encourages environmental stewardship through the careful management of materials throughout their life cycle.
Recyling and Disposal Strategies
Conducting a life-cycle assessment guides the development of a detailed recycling and disposal plan by identifying areas where the environmental impact of our project can be reduced. This helps us to conduct more background research to implement safe and sustainable management strategies for different components throughout its lifecycle.
Handling Cyanobacteria After Usage
Our chosen cyanobacteria strains, PCC 6803 and UTEX 3154, do not produce harmful cyanotoxins, which makes their disposal and recycling processes significantly less hazardous than those involving toxic cyanobacteria. Nevertheless, we adhere to general laboratory safety protocols when handling these organisms, including sealing them in cartridges to prevent any potential leakage, and replacing the cartridge after every 3 days. Should an unexpected spill occur, we have established procedures to decontaminate the area using bleach and dispose of any affected cyanobacteria cultures in designated biohazard bins.
Since our cyanobacteria are utilized for biofuel generation—a non-toxic application—the spent biomass can be treated to eliminate any residual toxins. Once deactivated, this biomass can be recycled and converted into bio-fertilizers to increase soil porosity, thereby contributing to sustainable agricultural practices.16 Additionally, this biomass can also be converted into graphite, a stable form of carbon storage, leading to increased carbon sequestration; as suggested from Mr Gathani from Cyano Capture. The used cartridges, after proper handling, will be sent to a centralized facility for cleaning and refurbishment, making them ready for reuse in future applications.
Handling of Screen Printing Ink and Equipment After Usage
For screen cleaning, a double cloth filter will be used to capture any biological ink residues, preventing cyanobacteria from entering the wastewater system. If any cyanobacteria are deemed toxic, this filter will be treated as biohazardous waste and disposed of accordingly.
Our bio-ink, composed of biodegradable materials such as xanthan gum, carboxymethyl cellulose, and gum arabic. While these materials are biodegradable, it can be harmful to aquatic life if released into the environment. Therefore, it should be disposed of at an approved waste disposal facility, following local regulations to ensure safety.17,18,19
Carbon-based conductive ink requires more meticulous handling due to the potential presence of additives such as binders and solvents in their formulations. For our industrial applications, carbon particles can be recovered through filtration methods or solvent evaporation techniques, ensuring that waste is minimized and materials are repurposed effectively.20
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- Teoli, D.; An, J.; Sanvictores, T. SWOT analysis.National Library of Medicine.
- IndustryArc. (2024) Biophotovoltaics (BPV) market 2020 - 2025. Industry Arc: Analytics Research Consulting.
- Hill, J. The Sobering Truth about Corn Ethanol. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2022, 119
- Boda Ravi Kiran; Vara, N.; S. Venkata Mohan. Synthetic Biology: An Emerging Field for Developing Economies.Elsevier eBooks 2024, 767–787.
- Ohgren, K.; Rudolf, A.; Galbe, M.; Zacchi, G. Fuel Ethanol Production from Steam-Pretreated Corn Stover Using SSF at Higher Dry Matter Content.Biomass and Bioenergy 2006, 30 (10), 863–869.
- Janković, T.; Adrie J. J. Straathof; McGregor, I. R.; Kiss, A. A. Bioethanol Separation by a New Pass-through Distillation Process.Separation and Purification Technology
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- Robinson, R. Cost-Benefit Analysis. BMJ : British Medical Journal 1993, 307 (6909), 924–926.
- Shah, Dr. A. (2017, January 12) Corn stover feedstock for biofuels production: Costs of Feedstock Supply. Ohioline.
- Nussey, B. (2022, February 19) Making ethanol from corn is the least efficient use of farmland. Freeing Energy.
- United Nations. “The 17 Sustainable Development Goals.” United Nations, 2015, sdgs.un.org/goals. Accessed 23 Sept. 2024.
- Tian, J.; Anthony Culley, S.; Maier, H. R.; Zecchin, A. C. Is Renewable Energy Sustainable? Potential Relationships between Renewable Energy Production and the Sustainable Development Goals. npj Climate Action 2024, 3 (1), 1–7.
- Bibi, S., Saadaoui, I., Bibi, A., Al-Ghouti, M., and Abu-Dieyeh, M. H. (2024) Applications, advancements, and challenges of cyanobacteria-based biofertilizers for sustainable agro and ecosystems in arid climates. Bioresource Technology Reports 25, 101789.
- Nexchem Team. (2014) Xanthan Gum Safety Data Sheet. Nexchem, Leicester.
- ThermoFisher Scientific Team. (2021) Carboxymethyl Cellulose Safety Data Sheet. ThermoFisher Scientific, Waltham.
- ECS Nottingham Team. Gum Arabic Safety Data Sheet. ECS Nottingham Ltd, Nottinghamshire.
- Wang, K. W. (2023) Solvent evaporation. Solvent Evaporation - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics.
