By Creetika Dahal | 1 September 2024
Genetic engineering involves designing and modifying sequences of genomes. This technology was born in 1927 when nonspecific changes in Drosophila DNA were recorded after radiation exposure. The modern era of genetic engineering surfaced after researchers showed that when a segment of DNA was introduced into a cell, it could be integrated into the pre-existing genome to enable specific changes in the cell. Subsequently, leaps and bounds have been achieved in refining, building upon and discovering new techniques and practices.
The foundations of genetic engineering were laid with Recombinant DNA technology and the use of plasmids as cloning vectors and the ability to cut DNA at specific sites using restriction enzymes. Today, genetic engineering may involve changing a single base pair (A-T or C-G), deleting a region of DNA, or adding a new segment of DNA. Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) and CRISPR-associated protein 9 (Cas9) is one such technology that can easily correct erroneous genes and also turn selective genes ‘on’ and ‘off’. Researchers can use proteins and guide RNA to cut DNA at very specific sites to add/disable genes. In 2020, it won the Nobel prize in biology.
Most gene editing technologies involve molecules that recognise and bind to specific DNA sequences, allowing researchers to use custom molecules to affect genetic changes on any gene. There are also subtler, more long-term methods of widespread gene editing over an entire group or population.
The ethics of genetic engineering is a slippery slope, but it must be walked on during a proper evaluation of the topic. With the first successful transformation of a human cell by adding genomic DNA having been achieved in 1962, we have had a long time to think about the consequences of our actions. Changes that can be artificially induced in a cell reach far and wide, and it is difficult to draw clear ethical boundaries. There have been instances of experiments being considered ‘dubious’, most involving some alteration in the human genome. It appears to be a general public consensus that genetic editing against disease and disability is acceptable, while enhancements –such as athletic ability and intelligence, or for altering physical characteristics, such as eye colour and height are frowned upon. There is also a long-standing issue debate about Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC) - that is, research that is intended to provide a clear benefit but could easily be misapplied to do harm.
Certain guidelines like the Nuremberg Code and Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human Subjects (The Declaration of Helsinki) have been proposed, with the latter being adapted by the World Health Organisation (WHO) for its member countries to adhere to. These materials are very important because it is important to not regard the entire practice as evil and misdirected. The potential of genetic engineering in medicine, agriculture and technology is immense. Greater efficiency in selective plant breeding, increased resistance to disease, companion species, and reduction of agricultural pollution, are a few of the widespread advantages that can be brought about through conscious use of genetic editing. While the imperative ethical debates continue, progress must also show in the practical applications of genetic engineering as a viable technology for good.